- Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?
- Which of the following determiners (限定词) can be placed before both singular count nouns and plural count nouns?
- Which of the following refelxive pronouns (反身代词) is used as an appositive (同位语)？ - Which of the following sentences expresses WILLINGNESS? - Which of the italicized parts functions as a subject? - Which of the italicized parts functions as an object?
- All the following sentences have an appositive EXCEPT .
- Which of the following best explains the meaning of “Shall we buy the tickets first”? - Which of the following contains an adverbial clause of cause?
- Which of the following prepositional phrases can function as an adverbial? - Which of the following prepositional phrases is an adverbial of concession? - \"...\" The sentence means that .
《综合教程》（修订版）第一册
1）simple past, past progressive, past perfect; 一般过去时，过去进行
时，过去完成时
Use of simple past tense:
1) The simple past tense is used to talk about completed actions and habits in the past. e.g. Shakespeare died in 1616.
We used to walk a mile in the morning when we were in London. 2) Past tense of verbs such as want, wonder, hope is used for polite inquiries. e.g. I wondered how you liked the film. Use of past progressive:
1) The past progressive indicates a limited duration of time and is thus a convenient way to indicate that something took place (in the simple past) while something else was happening. e.g. Carlos lost his watch while he was running. 2) The past progressive can express incomplete action.
e.g. I was sleeping on the couch when Bertie smashed through the door. ※ as opposed to the simple past, which suggests a completed action e.g. I slept on the couch last night.
3) The past progressive is also used to poke fun at or criticize an action that is sporadic but habitual in nature.
e.g. Tashonda was always handing in late papers.
4) We use the past progressive of verbs such as wonder to show politeness. e.g. I was wondering if you could give me a lift.
※ This use is even more polite and tentative than the simple past. Use of past perfect tense:
1) The past perfect tense expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past. e.g. I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.
2) If the past perfect tense is not referring to an action at a specific time, it is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here the past perfect tense is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, the past perfect tense cannot be used. e.g. She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct
She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct
2）verbs of perception + ing form/ -ed form/ infinitive form; 感官动词的-ing/-ed/不定式形式
Verbs of perception are a set of verbs denoting the use of one of the physical senses. Some verbs of perception see, look at, hear, listen, and feel, along with watch and sense can be used with objects followed by verbs in -ing form, -ed form and infinitive form. e.g. We heard you leave. (Emphasis on our hearing.)
We heard you leaving. (Emphasis on your leaving.)
John has never heard the piece played before. (Emphasis on the passive voice of play.)
3）special word order with as and though as/though 引导的让步状语从句
In a concessive clause introduced by though or although, the complement or the adverbial can be placed at the beginning of the sentence. The formula for the inversion is:
e.g. Old as / though he is, he works hard as a young man.
Hard as / though he studied, he did not pass the examination.
complement / adverbial + as / though + subject + predicate verb Unit 2
1） generic reference and specific reference of a/an and the 不定冠词和定冠词的形式、语法意义及用法
We usually use ―the‖ when we talk about things that are unique: the sun, the sky, etc, and about things that are context specific and are known by both the speaker and the listener. If we want to describe a particular instance of these we can use ―a/an‖.
e.g. I could see the plane (context specific, both the speaker and the listener know about the plane that is mentioned) high up in the sky (unique).
When I woke up there was a bright blue sky (an instance).
2）go to school or go to the school 用法区别
A/an, the and zero articles can all be used in set collocations or fixed collocations and idioms. Caution that collocations with different choices of articles can mean differently. e.g. A man is standing in the front of the house. (The man is in the house.) A tree is standing in front of the house. (The tree is outside the house.) I go to school every day. (=I go to the school to study every day.)
I went to the school today. (=Today I went to some place and that place was a school.)
Unit 3
1）
more…than construction; 了解和掌握比较级最高级的结构、用法和所表达
的意义
※You can use ―a little‖, ― a lot‖, ―a bit‖, ―a great deal‖, ―any‖, ―far‖, ― even‖ ―still‖, and ―much‖ in front of more than construction. e.g. Tom is a little younger than Tim. You get far more than you pay for it.
2） as…as construction;
The basic pattern is as +adjective / adverb + as. e.g. John is as bright as Bob.
The swimming pool isn't as wide as that one.
※ You can use ―just‖, ―almost‖, ―nearly‖ , ―quite‖ in front of \"as… as\"
construction,
e.g. Listening skills are just as important as speaking. Maybe I didn't love you quite as often as I should have.
3）the most
The superlative construction is used when three or more than three people or things are compared. In this construction there is usually a scope of comparison which may be expressed by a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, or a non-finite clause. Sometimes the scope of comparison is understood in the context and need not be expressed. In some set expressions, a scope of comparison is unnecessary at all. The negative form of the superlative construction is \"the least\which, in practical usage, is usually replaced by the superlative degree of antonymous adjectives or adverbs.
e.g. This is the least difficult book I have ever read.
The idea of highest degree can also be expressed by other constructions. In some contexts the positive or comparative degree expresses the same meaning as is usually conveyed by the superlative.
e.g. George did more work than anyone else.
Nothing in my life shook me so deeply as my first visit to China.
Unit 4
1） any, each, all, every and their compounds; any, each,all,every以及它们的复合词
2） countable and uncountable nouns; 可数名词和不可数名词
Common nouns can be classified into 1) countable nouns and uncountable nouns, or 2) individual nouns, collective nouns, material nouns and abstract nouns. Usually individual nouns and collective nouns are countable while material nouns and abstract nouns are uncountable. But sometimes abstract nouns and material nouns can be countable if they are used in specific sense, for example with an attribute. e.g. My children are a great joy (an attribute) to me.
His room, at sixteen dollars a day, was a disappointment (something specific, and something that disappoints people).
Sri Lanka produces many teas (many kinds of tea).
3）prepositions 介词的用法和特点及其语法意义
Unit 5
1）
imperative sentences; 祈使句
Imperative sentences, also known as ―commands‖ begin with a verb in the imperative mood and express a command, an instruction, an order, a warning, a request, a suggestion, a wish, an invitation, etc.
There are three kinds of imperatives: the second person imperatives, the first person imperative, and the third person imperatives. For the second person imperatives, if we want to enhance the force of the imperative, we can add an emphatic DO or YOU at the beginning of the sentence.
e.g. Mr. Smith, you sit over there.
Do come in. Let me have a look. Let‘s stop and finish it later.
Don‘t let anyone shirk his responsibility.
2） question tags added to imperative clauses; 祈使句的反意问句的构成和作用
Sometimes we add question tags to the imperative sentences to soften the imperative tone. For the second person imperatives, after a positive imperative, the question tag can be ―will/would/can/can‘t/won‘t you/?‖ ―Won‘t‖ is used to invite. ―Will you‖ is often used as request. ―Won‘t you‖ is used to show less forceful orders. ―Would‖ is less forceful than ―will‖ and much less common. ―Can‘t you‖ can show the speaker‘s annoyance. After a negative imperative, the question tag is ―will you?‖
If the part addressed includes only the speaker the question tag usually is ―will/won‘t you?‖ If the part addressed includes both the speaker and the listener, the tag should be ―shall we?‖ e.g. Don‘t be so noisy, will you?
Stop talking, will/won‘t/would/can/can‘t you? Let me drive you home, will you? Let‘s take a taxi, shall we?
3） anther, other(s), the other(s) 用法特点及表达的意义
*―Another‖ means 1) additional, one more (sometimes two more, three more ...) person or thing of the same type; 2) a different one, not the same person or thing. e.g. I need another week / two weeks to finish this investigation. We finally moved to another apartment.
*―Other‖ is always followed by plural nouns. It means 1) additional; 2) else, different. ―Others‖ means more people or things.
e.g. Danny is playing with two other children.
Saudi Arabia produces more oil than any other country (Singular noun must be used after ―any other‖.)
I only know about this book, but there might be others (= other books).
*―The other (one)‖ means the second of the two people or things. ―The others‖ (= the other ones) means the rest of the people or things. Note that here there must be a specific context. e.g. You can park on the other side of the street.
She‘s much brighter than all the other children in her class (―In her class‖ serves as a specific context.).
Unit 6
1）
simple prepositions and complex prepositions; 介词和复合介词
① The prepositions, such as in, of, at, and to, are all single words. We call them SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS.
② COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word combinations acting as a single unit. Here are some examples: according to, but for, except for, in terms of, in point of, with regard to, in the case of, etc.
e.g. regardless of but for in terms of except for according to in case of
2) conjunctions 连词
Conjunctions are used to express a connection between words. There are two types of conjunctions. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (or simply COORDINATORS) connect elements of equal syntactic status. e. g. Paul and David
I play tennis but I don't play well. meat or fish
On the other hand, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (or SUBORDINATORS) connect elements of unequal syntactic status.
e.g. I left early because I had an interview the next day. I'll be home at nine if I can get a taxi.
Unit 7
1) modal auxiliary + infinitive; 情态动词+不定式的构成方式及表达的不同语法意义
Modal auxiliaries are a special type of verb in English language. Syntactically, modal auxiliaries (or ―modals‖ for short) can only be the initial element of a finite verb phrase and are invariably followed by a bare infinitive. e.g.
*Notice that: when a modal auxiliary takes the predictive meaning, the infinitive after it may appear in the perfect form to denote past time She must have seen how scared I was and reached over. and in the progressive form to denote future time. I shouldn‘t be eating them anyhow. When the modal auxiliary takes the non-predictive meaning, the infinitive after it usually appears in its base form as in the first example.
I could hear small pockets of soothing conversation everywhere. 2) be going to and will; be going to 和will的用法区别
But we use ―will‖ rather than ―be going to‖ to make a prediction based on our opinion or experience and ― be going to‖ rather than ―will‖ to make a prediction based on some present evidence. And we use ―will‖ when we make a decision at the moment of speaking and ―be going to‖ for decisions about the future that have already been made. e.g. ―Shall I ask Sandra?‖ ―No, she won‘t want to be disturbed.‖ The sky has gone really dark. There‘s going to be a storm. I‘ll pick him up at 8. (an offer; making an arrangement now) I‘m going to collect the children at 8. (this was previously arranged)
3) hypothetical past 假设性过去时的用法及语法意义(虚拟)
We use hypothetical past to talk about unreal condition in the present, future and past. And in this case, we use simple past to replace the original simple present or simple future, and past perfect to replace the original past tense.
e.g. I am so nervous If only I weren‘t so nervous.
You are not telling the truth I wish you were telling the truth.
You didn‘t listen to me and you are in great trouble now. If you had listened to me, you wouldn‘t be in such trouble now.
Unit 8
1） real and unreal conditionals; 真实条件句和非真实条件句 2）it + be + … + that 强调句的用法及表达的不同语法意义
Sentences introduced by \"It is\"or \"It was\"are often used to emphasize a specific subject or object. The introductory clause is then followed by a relative pronoun. ―It + be + … + that‖ can be used to highlight the subject, object, adverbial of time, place, manner, cause. e.g. It is Jenny who spends all her money on shoes. (subject) It is shoes that Jenny spends all her money on. (object)
It was in London that he met his first wife. (place)
It was only when he phoned that I realized what had happened. (time) It is learning English that I find most enjoyable nowadays. (gerund action)
Unit 9
1）simple present tense; 一般现在时
①The simple present is used in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, scientific and other statements made for all time. e.g. A rolling stone gathers no moss. London stands on the River Thames.
②The simple present can express habitual or recurrent actions. e.g. Percy often goes to his office by underground. He always sleeps with his windows open.
③The simple present can be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.
e.g. What‘s the matter with you? You look pale. ④The simple present can be used to denote future time. e.g. I hope she likes the flowers.
If it doesn‘t rain tomorrow, we will go to the countryside.
⑤The simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time. This use of the simple
present is usually found with such verbs as tell, say, hear, write, learn. e.g. Mary tells me you‘re entering college next year. I hear poor old Mrs. Smith has lost her son.
2） present progressive; 现在进行时
e.g. Hurry up! We‘re all waiting for you.
①The present progressive is used to denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking.
②The present progressive can express an action in progress at a period of time including the present.
e.g. Jane is studying law while her sister is doing physics.
③The present progressive is used to denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement.
e.g. I‘m going to Shanghai for the summer holiday.
When you are talking with him, take care not to mention this.
④The present progressive can be used to denote an action in the immediate past and to make even politer requests with such verbs as hope, wonder.
e.g. You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.
I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.
3）progressive verb vs. non-progressive verbs 延续性动词和非延续性动词的用法和语法意义
The present progressive is commonly associated with durative dynamic verbs such as work, play, study, live, write, etc. which are progressive verbs. Those momentary verbs, denoting very short duration, such as shoot, jump, nod, put, etc. and stative verbs such as think, know, belong, believe, like, etc., are non-progressive verbs.
e.g. Peter shoots and —yes, it‘s a goal. The crowd are cheering and the other players are
running up to congratulate him.
Unit 10
1）
The passive voice; 被动语态
If the agent is important (the person, company or thing that does the action) , use ―by‖. If it is not definite and does not carry any essential information, it can be omitted. ※Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive voice.
e. g. Houses are built.
My bike was stolen.
2）subordination 引导状语从句的连词的用法和语法意义
Subordination (abbreviated variously SUBORD, SBRD, SUBR or SR) is a complex syntactic construction in which one or more clauses are dependent on the main clause. Dependent clauses are also called ―subordinate clauses‖.
Subordinate clauses are introduced by a subordinating conjunction, such as, after, although, as much as, as long as, as soon as, because, before, if, in order that, lest, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, and while, etc.
e.g. I don't know if George is awake yet.
George overslept because his alarm clock was broken.
Unit 11
1）
reported speech; 间接引语的表述方法
Note:
● Backshift of Simple Present is optional if the situation is still unchanged or if you agree
with the original speaker.
e. g. ―Canberra is the capital of Australia.‖ She said that Canberra is / was the capital of Australia. ● Advisory expressions with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
e.g. ―You must read that book.‖ He advised / urged me to read that book. ● The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are various
possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
e. g. ―Let‘s go to the cinema.‖ He suggested going to the cinema. He suggested that we should go to the cinema. 2）subject-verb agreement 主谓一致的用法
Most likely, your verb will agree with the first noun to the left of the verb. e.g. The Supreme Court judge decides the appropriate penalty.
Occasionally, a sentence has the subject after the verb instead of before it. This strategy is often used for poetic effect.
e. g. Over the ripples glides a small canoe.
If subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the closer subject. e. g. Either the actors or the director is at fault.
The relative pronouns (who, whom, which, and that) are either singular or plural, depending on the words they refer to.
e. g. The sales manager is a good researcher who spends a great amount of time surfing
the Web for information.
Indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, each, either one, everyone, or anyone) are considered singular and need singular verbs although they may convey plural meaning. e. g. Anyone who wants to pursue higher education has to pass entrance exams.
A few nouns can be either plural or singular, depending on whether they mean a group or separate individuals. These words are rarely used as plurals in modern writing. e. g. The jury is sequestered.
A few subjects look plural but are really singular or vice versa. e. g. The news of the discovery is spreading. The mass media have publicized the facts.
Unit 12
1）
the relative clause; 关系从句的形式及语法意义
A relative clause is a clause that is introduced by a relative word — either by a relative pronoun or by a relative determiner, or by a relative adverb. Relative clauses may be restrictive or non-restrictive. antecedent
a) The relative that is normally used as subject complement in an SVC construction or there be
construction. In this use, \"that\" is usually omitted.
e.g. When Mary was born, Dorothy decided her daughter would be the singer (that) she
always wanted to be.
The 9.15 is the fastest train (that) there has ever been.
b) When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun such as all, anything, something, or nothing,
the following relative clause usually requires a relative that as subject, and that/zero as
object.
e.g. All that live must die.
All (that) I want is peace and quiet.
c) When the antecedent is composed of a personal head with determiners as only, all, any, and
when the antecedent takes a premodifier in the superlative degree, the following relative clause is normally introduced by that rather than who or which. e.g. Any man that wants to succeed must work hard. Newton was one of the greatest men that ever lived.
d) A non-restrictive relative clause is usually introduced by who, whom, whose, which. The antecedent of which may be a clause or part of a cause.
e.g. This book, which only appeared a year ago, has already gone through several editions. He tried to stand on his hands for five minutes, which — as you know — is rather a difficult
thing to do.
2）the present and the future 现在时和将来时的不同形式即语法意义
Future time is expressed by means of model auxiliaries, by semi-auxiliaries, or by the simple present and present progressive forms. 1) will/shall +verb
e.g. The next train to Shanghai will leave at 8 a.m. We shall know the result next week. 2) be going to +verb
e.g. He‘s going to be a doctor, when he grows up.
3) be +-ing (present participle): Verbs of movement from one place to another such as go, come, leave, start, arrive, etc. can be used in this structure. e.g. The plane is taking off at 6.30. 4) be to +(infinitive)
e.g. I‘m to have tea with Betty this afternoon. 5) simple present
e.g. I‘ll give it to you after I return..
Unit 13
1） the infinitive and the –ing participle as object; 现在分词和不定式作为宾语的用法
a) Verbs that are followed by –ing participle include: admit, fancy, delay, miss, involve, postpone,
finish, imagine, avoid, deny, risk, practise, consider, enjoy, etc.
b) Verbs that are followed by the infinitive include: decide, hope, pretend, deserve, promise,
attempt, offer, agree, plan, aim, afford, manage, threaten, refuse, learn, fail, etc. c) Either infinitive or –ing participle without change of meaning
Verbs that can take either an infinitive or an –ing participle as object include attempt, begin, can’t bear, continue, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, start, etc. Following these words, an infinitive or an –ing participle can alternate without change in basic meaning. There are cases, however, where the transforms are not in free variation.
i) After process verbs such as begin, cease, continue, start and emotive verbs such as can’t bear, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, the infinitive is commonly used to refer to a specific act while the –ing participle is used to refer to a general act. e.g. I can‘t bear living alone.
I can‘t bear to see the child so badly treated. Phil prefers doing it that way. He prefers to go by train this evening.
ii) After need, want, require, deserve, an active -ing participle can be used to denote a passive meaning which can also be expressed by a passive infinitive. e.g. This letter needs signing by the manager. = This letter needs to be signed by the manager. The house wants rewiring. = The house wants to be rewired.
iii) After begin and start, either infinitive or –ing form is possible, but when the infinitive is a stative verb, or when begin/start is in the progressive, we use the infinitive form. e.g. We began to see what he meant. It‘s beginning to rain.
d) Either infinitive or –ing participle with different meanings
The verbs such as forget, go on, leave off, mean, regret, remember, stop, etc. that can take an infinitive or an –ing participle with different meanings fall into five sub-classes:
i) After remember, forget and regret, the infinitive refers to the next action that follows the first, and the –ing participle to a previous event. e.g. Can‘t you remember telling me the story last night? = You told me the story last night. Can‘t you remember it?
You must remember to tell him all that. = You must tell him all that. Don‘t forget it.
ii) After stop, leave off, go on, the –ing participle functions as object, while the infinitive as adverbial of purpose.
e.g. They stopped watching TV at 9:30. = At 9:30 they did not watch TV any more. He left off writing the book. = He stopped writing the book. He left off to write the book.
He left some place in order to write the book.
iii) After try, mean, can’t help, the choice between an infinitive and an –ing participle depends on the meaning of the preceding verb itself. e.g. Your plan would mean spending hours. I didn‘t mean to make you angry.
iv) After agree, decide, there is a choice between the infinitive and ―preposition + -ing‖. e.g. They agreed to share the remuneration. They agreed on sharing the remuneration.
v) After encourage, permit, allow, recommend, advise, authorise, either the –ing participle or the infinitive with an expressed logical subject can be used. Allow doing/allow sb to do e.g. She doesn‘t allow smoking here. She doesn‘t allow us to smoke here.
2） the non-finite forms as adverbial and noun phrase modifier; 非限定性形式做名词短语、副词短语修饰语
The non-finite forms include the –ing clause and the infinitive clause. An –ing participle clause usually refers to an active and/or progressive event, an –ed participle clause refers to an passive and/or experienced event while an infinitive clause suggests an event to be experienced. They can be used as adverbial or as noun phrase modifier.
e.g. She looked at us with a smiling face.
To determine the number of cells, a sample is put under a microscope.
Unit 14
1）
need; need的用法
Need can be a lexical verb as well as a modal auxiliary. As a lexical verb, it is followed by a to-infinitive. As a modal auxiliary, it is non-assertive, which means it is usually used in negative sentences or questions. Note that in answer to a question introduced by need, we should use must in a positive response and needn’t in a negative response. e.g. Do we need to stay this evening?
Need we work late today?
No, we needn‘t, but we must tomorrow.
When inquiring about the necessity of doing something, either must or need can be used. If the answer is negative, we can only use needn’t or don’t have to rather than mustn’t. e.g. Need/must I see a doctor at once?
No, you needn‘t / don‘t have to for the time being.
―Needn‘t have +-ed‖ implies that something was done but was unnecessary. e.g. I needn‘t have gone to the station.
2）the non-finite form as noun phrase modifiers 名词性短语修饰语的用法及其语法意义
The –ing form of most intransitive verbs of English can be used attributively as adjectives to indicate what someone or something is doing. –ed adjectives may refer to a person‘s mental or emotional reaction to something or describe the expression or manner of the person affected. Most –ed adjectives are related to transitive verbs and have a passive meaning. A few –ed adjectives are related to the intransitive verbs and have an active meaning. e.g. Most people like fresh food and don‘t like frozen food.
Some people say it is an interesting book while others say that it is a boring one.
《综合教程》（修订版）第二册
would v.s. used to; used to v.s. be used to
―Would do‖ refers to past actions and habits as well. Remember that ―would‖ is also used in a conditional sense. It‘s a good idea not to use ―would‖ in questions and negative sentences, as its meaning can easily be misunderstood in a conditional sense. e. g. We’d spend a lot of money on projects that didn’t help the company. They would ask a lot of crazy questions that didn’t seem to make any sense.
―Used to do‖ expresses something that we often did in the past, but don‘t do anymore. It is
often used in the positive form to speak about repeated actions. Generally, we use the form to contrast past habits with present situations.
e. g. I used to go jogging three times a week when I lived in Italy. Now, I’m too busy and can
only jog once a week.
Janice used to live in New York, but moved to Seattle last year.
―Be used to (doing) sth.‖ means someone has experienced something so that it no longer seems surprising, difficult or strange. It is always followed by a noun or gerund. e. g. Sally is used to spending hours in front of the computer every day.
They’ve always lived in hot countries so they aren’t used to the cold weather here.
would, should, might, could
Would can be used in some forms that are viewed as more formal or polite. It can also be used to express willingness.
e. g. Would you get me a glass of water?
I told him not to go, but he would not listen.
Should is used to indicate that an action is considered by the speaker to be obligatory. It is used to form the future tense of the subjunctive mood, usually in the first person. e. g. You should brush your teeth every day.
If I should be late, go without me.
Might can be used to express a present time possibility or uncertainty. It can be used in the first person to express that future actions are being considered. It can be used in a question to ask for permission.
e. g. John is not in the office today, and he might be sick. I might go to the mall later. Might your phone?
Like could and would, might can also be used in polite requests and suggestions. The auxiliaries could, would and might can be used to express differing degrees of politeness. Thus, might expresses the highest degree of politeness.
Could is used to express ability. It is also used to express beliefs about situations. Could can be used to make requests. e. g. I could speak English.
He couldn’t have left already; why would he want to get there so early? Could you pass me the cheese?
didn’t need to do / needn’t have done
Both these patterns are used to talk about past events. ―Needn‘t have done something‖
means that something was not necessary under circumstances where it was done. e. g. I needn’t have prepared all that food. They phoned to say they wouldn’t be coming. When I got home from the bakery, I found we still had plenty of bread, so I needn’t have
bought a loaf.
―Didn‘t need to do something‖ means that there was no necessity to do something. And the thing was not done.
e.g. We had plenty of petrol in the tank, so I didn’t need to fill up. We didn’t need to wait for long for them. They arrived just after us.
Dangling Participle
悬垂分词又叫“无依着分词”（Unattached Participle）,是指其逻辑主语与所处句子的主语不一致的分词。
Which sentence contains dangling participle?
Wrong: Leaving the classroom, the lights went out by themselves. Right: Leaving the classroom, he found the lights went out by themselves.
Concrete nouns & abstract nouns Experience: 经验; 经历 Youth: in youth, a youth年青人 抽象名词前加adj时,是可数名词
一些词泛指是不可数的, 指某一特殊情况时,可数
Quantifier量词
Determiner限定词Every, each, everyone, every one, all, both, ether or neither, some, any
Negation and inversion
Inversion involves putting an auxiliary verb before the subject of a clause. In formal English, it is quite common to use inversion after negative adverbial expressions and restrictive words such as only, never, hardly, little and seldom. e. g. At no time did he get permission for what he was doing. Not until the next morning did she realize how serious it was. Only later did they learn his terrible secret.
Hardly had we walked in the door when the phone started ringing.
In some negative sentences, ―not‖ is to negate the predicates in form, but actually it is used to negate other elements of those negative sentences. Therefore, while translating, we should
transfer the negation in some cases. e. g. Every man cannot be a scientist.
A high executive does not have a large vocabulary merely because of the opportunities of his position.
A negative may be transferred from a certain part of the sentence to another in translation. e. g. We don’t believe that our mother tongue is inferior to any other language in the world. I don’t think Father will fancy living an idle life like that.
Unit noun
There are a number of nouns in English which can be used with mass nouns to indicate units that you can count after all. Some of the other unit nouns have more restricted collocations: they combine with certain nouns but not with others. Here are a few examples:
a slice of cake a loaf of bread a lump of sugar a pinch or grain of salt a stroke of luck
as … as, as vs. like
―As … as‖ is used as comparative subordinating conjunctions to join two clauses. e. g. The house was as large as two put together. The coat of paint is not as fresh as it used to be.
―Like‖ (when used to mean ―similar to‖) is a preposition. ―As‖ (when used to mean ―in the same manner‖) is a conjunction. Prepositions govern nouns, pronouns, and words used as nouns. Conjunctions join clauses. e. g. Do as I say!
He eats like a pig.
When used as a preposition, ―as‖ means ―in the position of, in the form of‖. e. g. Dad dressed up as Santa Claus.
Practice:
Insert as or like as appropriate in each sentence.
1. In 1939, ____________ in 1941, there was a great surge of patriotic feeling. 2. You‘re just ____________ what I expected.
3. You mustn‘t think of me ____________ being unhappy. 4. The child sang as sweetly ___________ a nightingale. 5. I received the same grade ___________ you did. 6. There‘s nothing ___________ a good night‘s sleep. Key:
1. as 2. like 3. as 4. as 5. as 6. Like
the simple present and the present progressive
Simple present is used for activities that are long-lasting habits. e.g. Helen exercises everyday.
Helen cooks Greek food often.
Present progressive is used for activities that occur at the moment of speaking activities. e. g. Helen is taking a class at Skyline College this year.
Helen is studying Multimedia Arts this semester.
Helen is listening to her iPod now.
The present continuous with words such as ―always‖ or ―constantly‖ expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. e. g. She is always coming to class late.
He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.
Speakers use the present continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.
e. g. I am not going to the party tonight.
Is he visiting his parents next weekend?
2. Position of adjectives
Unlike adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category.
The categories in the following table can be described as follows:
A. Determiners — articles and other limiters.
B. Observation — postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g. a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g. beautiful, interesting)
C. Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g. wealthy, large, round) D. Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g. young, old, new, ancient) E. Color — adjectives denoting color (e.g. red, black, pale)
F. Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g. French, American, Canadian) G. Material — denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g. woolen, metallic, wooden)
F. Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g. rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover) e. g. a beautiful old Italian touring car four gorgeous long-stemmed red silk roses her short black hair
several enormous young American basketball players
Numerals
Cardinal numerals 基数
The different ways to express ―around‖: around, about, nearly, some, more or less, or so, thereabouts, etc.
Ordinal numerals序数
Ordinal numerals allow both articles ahead. Again, the article determines the noun only, not the numeral.
Fractional numeral分数is used to express parts of a whole. Commonly, it takes two forms:
1. Common fraction
Work according to the formula: Wholes + Numerator / Denominator e. g. 1 2/3 = (is equal to or means) one (whole) and / plus two thirds Note the ―s‖ added to the denominator: ―thirds‖. 2. Decimal numbers小数
Work according to the formula: Whole numbers (point) decimals e. g. 12.15 = (is equal to or means) twelve fifteen, or twelve point fifteen
Have one‘s forty winks白天小睡，one in a thousand难得，杰出，at sixes and sevens乱七八糟， on all fours四脚着地， talk nineteen to the dozen 喋喋不休， ten to one很可能， a hundred and
one 许多，he is ten times the man you are他比你好的多
Practice:
Correct the errors in the following sentences.
1. He was not due at the office for another three-quarter of an hour.
2. This is the worst disaster I can remember in my plus 25 years as a police officer. 3. It took him one and a half hour to finish the task. 4. Five hundred yuan a month are enough to live on. 5. Three fourth of the buildings was ruined. 6. He is a student of the Class Two. Key:
1. He was not due at the office for another three-quarter of an hour. three quarters
2. This is the worst disaster I can remember in my plus 25 years as a police officer. 25 years plus 3. It took him one and a half hour to finish the task. hours
4. Five hundred yuan a month are enough to live on. is
5. Three fourths of the buildings was ruined. were 6. He is a student of the Class Two. Class Two
Determiners (both, each, either or neither, some, any)
Determiners are used in front of nouns to indicate whether you are referring to something specific or something of a particular type.
When both is used with and to link parallel elements in a sentence, the words or phrases that follow them should correspond grammatically. Both can only collocate with plural count nouns.
e. g. Both her fingers are broken.
Both Mary and Tom like reading English novels.
The phrase beginning with each identifies a set of items wherein the words following each identify the individual elements by their shared characteristics. The phrase is grammatically
singular in number, so if the phrase is the subject of a sentence, its verb is conjugated into a third-person singular form. Similarly, any pronouns that refer to the noun phrase are singular. e. g. Each candidate has 49 votes.
Each voter must decide for herself.
Either and neither are used in sentences concerning a possible choice between two items. Either can mean one or the other (of two) or each of two.
e.g. I’ve got tea and coffee, so you can have either. (one or the other)
The room has a door at either end. (both)
Neither means not the first one and not the second one. e. g. Neither of the students were listening.
Both, some and any appear before nouns. Some and any may be used with countable and uncountable nouns.
e. g. He bought some sandwiches for lunch.
He didn’t see any stars when he visited Hollywood. He ate some cheese with his sandwiches.
He never drinks any coffee at night because then he can’t sleep.
Questions
Object clause
e.g. Susan: ―I work in an office.‖ Susan says that she works in an office. Susan: ―I work in an office now.‖ Susan said that she worked in an office then. e.g. Liz wanted to know whether / if we had any photos of our holiday.
We didn‘t know why the shop was shut down. (not … why was the shop shut down)
1. Disjunct
A disjunct is a type of adverbial that expresses information that is not considered essential to the sentence it appears in, but which is considered to be the speaker‘s or writer‘s attitude towards, or descriptive statement of, the propositional content of the sentence.
More generally, the term disjunct can be used to refer to any sentence element that is not fully integrated into the clausal structure of the sentence. Such elements usually appear peripherally (at the beginning or end of the sentence) and are set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma (in writing) and a pause (in speech).
e.g. Honestly, I couldn‘t believe it.
Unfortunately, Kim has had to leave us
Disjunct外加语 Rightly, you returned the money. Adjunct附加语 I have almost finished.
Conjunct联加语 it rained, therefore, the match was postponed.
2. Relative words
Relative words are used to refer to a noun mentioned before and of which we are adding more information. They are used to join two or more sentences in the way we call ―relative sentences‖.
e.g. I know many boys who / that play rugby.
The shirt which / that Carl bought has a stain on the pocket. This is the boy whose mother works for the BBC.
Barnstaple has a very old covered market where I bought some lovely old plates. Sunday is the day when people usually don‘t go to work.
If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we usually put it at the end of the clause: e.g. The music which / that Julie listens to is good. Sometimes, the preposition can also be placed before the relative pronoun. e.g. My brother met a woman with whom I used to work. It was the stream in which the elephant and the mouse preferred to swim.
Notice that we cannot use who or that after a preposition, for the relative pronoun now serves as the object of the preposition.
Practice: Fill in each blank with a proper relative word. Use “preposition + relative word” if necessary.
1. Good writing is built on a solid framework of logic, argument, narrative, or motivation _________ runs through the entire piece of writing and holds it together. This is the time _________ many writers find it most effective to outline as a way of visualizing the hidden spine _________ the piece of writing is supported.
2. The man, _________ father is a professor, forgot his umbrella.
3. Australia is one of the few countries _________ people drive on the left. 4. James Russell is a man _________ I have the greatest respect.
5. His glasses, _________ he could see nothing, fell on the ground and broke. 6. He built a telescope _________ he could study the sky.
Key:
1. which / that, when, by which 2. whose
3. where / in which 4. for whom 5. without which 6. through which
3. whatever, wherever, whoever, whichever, whenever, and however
The words whatever, wherever, whoever, whichever, whenever and however have similar meanings to ―no matter who, what, which …‖. A word of this kind has a double function: it acts as a subject, object or adverb in its own clause. It also acts as a conjunction joining its clause to the rest of the sentence.
e.g. Whatever you may say, I am not going to take him back. (No matter what you say, ...)
Wherever you go, I shall follow you. (No matter where you go, I shall follow you.) Whoever disobeys the law must be punished. (No matter who disobeys the law …) However much he eats, he never gets fat. (No matter how much he eats, …) These words are also used to suggest something not definitely known. e.g. I shall come whenever I can slip away. We shall send whoever is available.
You will have to be content with whatever you can get.
Practice: Complete the following sentences with the appropriate words in the box.
1. ____________ problems you may have, we will help. 2. Take _____________ book you like best.
3. ___________ late it is, you must come to the party because it will be something fantastic. 4. You will see this product advertised ____________ you like. 5. ____________ you come, you will be warmly welcomed.
6. ____________ uprooted that tree ought to be ashamed of themselves. 7. This is one possible solution to the problem. ____________, there are others. Key:
whoever wherever whatever however whenever whichever 1. Whatever 2. whichever 3. However 4. wherever 5. Whenever 6. Whoever
7. However
The present perfect tense vs. the simple past tense
The simple past refers to the definite past. The present perfect refers to ―the past with present relevance.‖ The action or state denoted by the present perfect tense, though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present. Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expressed by the simple past.
Compare: His father has been a teacher all his life. (His father is still alive.) His father was a teacher all his life. (His father is now dead.)
2. Connectives (because, as, since, seeing that, for, because of)
Because is generally used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence. As and since are used when the reason is already well known, or is less important than the rest of the sentence. Since is a little more formal than as. As and since clauses often begin the sentence. Clauses of cause-result are introduced by because or as.
Seeing that means the same as since. It is used only in informal speech.
For suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought. For clauses never come at the beginning of the sentence.
The phrase because of is a prepositional phrase, and should be followed by a noun or a noun phrase.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to the person who is doing the action or to whom the action affects. In that way we distinguish two types of personal pronouns: Personal ―Subject Pronouns‖ and Personal ―Object Pronouns‖.
Personal Pronouns
as subject (nominative) I You he she it we you they We have some books. as object (accusative and dative) me you him her it us you them The books are for us. A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.
2. Impersonal it vs. there
In many English sentences, you will find the word ―it‖ or the word ―there‖ in the subject position. These are usually ―impersonal‖ sentences — sentences where there is no natural subject. Impersonal “it”
When to use it Talking about weather Identifying something Examples It‘s raining / cold / sunny. ―Who is it?‖ ―It‘s me.‖ ―What is it?‖ ―It‘s a cat.‖ Talking about time ―What time is it?‖ ―It‘s five o‘clock.‖ ―What day is it?‖ ―It‘s Thursday.‖ Talking about distance Impersonal “there”
Impersonal ―there‖ is used to say that something exists in a particular place: e.g. There is a book on the table. (singular) There are three men in the car. (plural)
―How far is it to Toronto?‖ ―It‘s 4000 kilometers.‖ 3. Non-finite clauses and verbless clauses
A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as predicator. A verbless clause is a clause without any form of verb element. Non-finite clauses include infinitive clauses, -ing participle clauses, and -ed participle clauses. Both non-finite clauses and verbless clauses can be used with an adverbial meaning, giving information about time, cause, condition, purpose, result, concession as well as accompanying circumstances.
e.g. When sleeping, I never hear a thing.
Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir.
He opened his lips as if to say something.
Whatever the reason, his cordiality has won him a friend. When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Nonfinite clauses and verbless clauses Nonfinite clauses:
1) -ed participle clauses can be introduced by subordinators such as while, unless, though, whenever, if, whether, once, whether…or. While flattered, I must decline to accept.
2) infinitive clauses can be introduced by as if, as though, whether, so as etc. I was wondering whether to go upstairs or to follow Mr. Maxim to the library.
3) -ing participle clauses can be introduced by subordinators such as before, after, although, as if, as though, even if, once, though, unless, until. Verbless clauses: the same with 1)
Whenever possible, the children play outside in the fresh air.
The simple past and the past perfect
We use the past perfect for an action which was completed before a special point of time in the past. We often use the past perfect together with the simple past. The action which was completed before the other action began is put into past perfect.
In simple words, while the simple past refers to a past event, a past habit or a past state, the past perfect refers to past in the past.
Past Perfect Timeline
e.g. I had already done the shopping by the time she came home. I was late for work; by the time I arrived the client had already left.
2. have … do / doing / done
―Have … do …‖ means ―to cause … to do something‖, and usually it‘s order-like. ―Have … done‖ means the subject causes something to be done or dealt with by somebody else. ―Have … doing‖ means to‖ keep … doing something‖ or ―to allow … to do something‖.
e.g. Don‘t forget to have him come.
I won‘t have you talking like that.
I intend to have my daughter educated overseas.
3. Adjectives ending in –able or -ible
We can add suffix -able (also -ible) to a noun or a verb to form a new adjective. The suffix
-able / -ible means to be able to be done or to have a particular quality or condition.
e.g. washable: it can be washed unbreakable: it cannot be broken loveable: easily to be loved knowledgeable: knowing a lot comfortable: of great comfort
Use of determiners
1) Determiners with all three classes of nouns
Determiners such as possessive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some, any, no, the other, and whose can go with all the three classes of nouns. e.g. the car the cars the money
his car his cars his money some book some books some money
2) Determiners with singular count nouns only
Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a, such a can only collocate with singular count nouns.
e.g. each worker every student either book neither boy 3) Determiners with plural count nouns only
Determiners such as both, two, three, etc., another two / three, many, (a) few, several, these, those, a (great) number of can only collocate with plural count nouns.
e.g. both workers (a) few words several girls these / those tourists 4) Determiners with noncount nouns only
Determiners such as a (little) bit of, a great amount of, a great deal of, (a) little, much, less, least can only collocate with noncount nouns.
e.g. much noise (a) little courage a bit of fun a large amount of money less oil 5) Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only
Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with either singular or plural count nouns.
e.g. the first rose / roses the last man / men the next meeting / meetings 6) Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only
Determiners such as this, that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns. e.g. this / that job this / that work 7) Determiners with plural and noncount nouns only
Determiners such as a lot of, lots of, plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns.
e.g. enough copies enough bread more essays more time most people This class of determiners may also include less and least, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present-day English, especially in informal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns. e.g. Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.
Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.
This use of less and least is regarded by some as non-standard.)
Correct the errors, where found, in the following sentences. 1. He‘s invited to a lot of parties and he goes to everyone. 2. I would like to visit each country in the world. 3. When I was on holiday, my whole luggage was stolen. 4. Why is there fewer traffic on the streets in February than in May? 5. He has published a great amount of short stories in English. 6. There is a stairway at both end of the corridor. Key:
1. everyone → every one 2. each → every
3. my whole luggage → all my luggage 4. fewer → less
5. a great amount of → a number of 6. both → either
Use of pronouns
personal pronouns人称代词 such as I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, them, possessive pronouns 物主代词such as my, mine, your, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs, reflexive pronouns反身代词 such as myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves, reciprocal pronouns相互代词such as one another, each other, demonstrative pronouns such as this, that, these, those, interrogative pronouns 疑问代词such as who, whom, whose, what, which, relative pronouns 关系代词such as who, whom, whose, that, which and indefinitive pronouns不定代词 such as somebody, anybody, everybody, nobody, someone, anyone, everyone, no one, something, anything, everything, nothing, all, another, any, both, each, few, neither, none, some, etc.
e.g. There‘s somebody at the door.
Did anybody ever hear of such a thing?
Use of genitive case of nouns名词所有格
Case is a grammatical term. It denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship both grammatically and semantically with other words in a sentence. The genitive case of nouns is formed by adding ’s to nouns.
e.g. my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes, my mother-in-law‘s death, an hour‘s work
Certain semantic relations between noun phrases may be expressed by a genitive in premodification or by a prepositional phrase (usually an of- phrase) in postmodification. e.g. the trunk of an elephant, the foreign policy of China, the arrival of the prime minister
2011年 第65题
Which of the following italicized phrases indicates a subject-predicated relation(主谓关系)?
A. Mr. Smith’s passport has been issued.
B. John’s travel details have not been finalized. C. The visitor’s arrival was reported in the news. D. The new bookstore sells children’s stories. 答案：C
本题考查名词s-属格的意义。A和B中‘s表示所有关系，即相当于Mr. Smith has a passport和John has travel details；C表示主谓关系，相当于The visitor arrived；D表示事物的类别，相当于stories for children。
Use of irregular plurals
The regular plural is formed by adding -s or -es to the base of the noun, while the irregular plural is not formed in the same way but by other means such as by the change of internal vowel or by the change in the ending of the noun.
e.g. foot — feet man — men stratum — strata hypothesis — hypotheses Practice
Put the following nouns into plural. 1. grouse 2. formula 3. woman doctor 4. mouse 5. ox 6. fire-engine
Key:
1. grouse 2. formulae, formulas 3. women doctors 4. mice 5. oxen 6. fire-engines
Use of subject-verb agreement
By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb with regard to number. There are three principles guiding subject-verb concord; they are principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity.
1) The principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural from; if, on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a mass noun, the verb should take the singular form. e.g. Two girls were standing on the corner. He is a good student.
2) The principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion.
e.g. The government have asked the country to decide by a vote.
3) The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject. e.g. Either my brothers or my father is coming. Practice
Use the proper form of the verbs given to complete the sentences.
1. As most sports magazines can attest, playing sports such as tennis and basketball ______ (require) not only mental ability but also physical strength.
2. Despite the bad weather we have had in the past days, there _______ (be) no doubt that the tournament will go on.
3. Meat pie and peas _______ (be) Tom‘s favourite at the moment. 4. That she should oppose these ideas _______ (be) quite natural. 5. Fifty-six dollars ________ (be) stolen from the cash register. 6. No one except his own supporters ________ (agree) with him. Key:
1. requires 2. is 3. is
4. is 5. was 6. agree
Use of comparatives and superlatives
Adjectives have two forms. One is the positive degree and the other is the comparative degree and the superlative degree. The comparative degree or the superlative degree is formed by adding -er or -est to the adjective with one syllable or a few adjectives with two syllables, such as taller, bigger or tallest, biggest. The comparative degree or the superlative degree is formed by adding more or the most before the adjectives with two or more than two syllables, such as more careful, the most careful, more active, the most active. For the irregular adjectives, the forms of their comparative degree or superlative degree are different.
e.g. good — better — best bad — worse — worst far — farther — farthest little — less — least much, many — more — most
Use of the past perfect and the past perfect progressive
The past perfect refers to ―past in the past‖. It also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment. e.g. I had written the article when they came.
In 1960, I‘d known him for ten years; I met him for the first time in 1950.
The past perfect progressive suggests continuousness, temporariness and incompleteness of the actions. The chief use of the past perfect progressive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfect, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfect progressive is more frequently used than the past perfect.
e.g. I‘d been working for some time when he called. = I‘d worked for some time when he called.
Subordination and coordination 从属关系和并列关系
Generally speaking, coordination establishes a relationship between ideas of approximately equal importance. A coordination construction is formed with coordinating devices including coordinators (usually and, or and but) and some punctuation marks. e.g. The rain stopped, and the sun came out.
There are five types of discharge from military service: honorable, general, undesirable,
bad conduct, and dishonorable.
Golf demands the best of time and space; tennis, the best of personal energy.
Subordination establishes a kind of relationship which indicates that one idea is more
important than the other. A subordinate construction might be a finite clause, a non-finite clause, a verbless clause, or a phrase.
e.g. Expecting trouble, the guards were fully armed.
When the rain stopped, the sun came out.
Before she could answer the telephone, it stopped ringing.
which sentence in each of the pairs is preferable？
1. a. Children use the telephone so often, and their parents become angry, and they have it disconnected.
b. Because children use the telephone so often, they anger their parents, who have it
disconnected.
2. a. Charlie had a small piece of cake after dinner, although it was not on his diet. b. Although cake was not on his diet, Charlie had a small piece after dinner. 3. a. Wendy travelled to Hawaii, when she stayed at a hotel near Diamond Head. b. Wendy stayed at a hotel near Diamond Head when she travelled to Hawaii. 4. a. Both Jane wanted to go to the south, and her husband wanted to go there, too. b. Both Jane and her husband wanted to go to the south.
5. a. It is quite clear that the crime was done deliberately. b. It is quite clear the crime was done deliberately.
6. a. He ate too little and worked too hard for weeks on end, and he became ill. b. As he ate too little and worked too hard for weeks on end, he became ill. Key
1. b 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. b
The subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood is used to indicate a non-fact and hypothesis. There are two forms of the subjunctive: be-subjunctive and were-subjunctive. In the that-clause after verbs, adjectives or nouns expressing ―command‖, ―suggestion‖, or ―resolution‖ , be-subjunctive is used in American English and ―should + infinitive‖ is used in British English. Were subjunctive, often in clauses introduced by if, supposing, wish, as if, is a verb form indicating hypothetical meaning. e.g. She insisted that she go to the south for her holiday. If it were to rain, the game would be put off.
Complete the following sentences using the subjunctive forms.
1. Suppose he ___________ (ask) for the money back at once. 2. He speaks as if he ___________ (be) the boss here.
3. He is my best friend — my second self, as it __________ (be). 4. I‘d rather I _________ (be) not at the site of the accident.
5. Though the whole world __________ (be) against me, I would do what I consider as right. 6. Congress has decided that the present law _________ (maintain). Key:
1. were to ask 2. were 3. were 4. were 5. were 6. be maintained
Replacing and omitting words
1) Replacing words: Replacing (substitution) is a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual cohesion. There are three kinds of substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution, and therefore three kinds of substitutes: nominal substitutes such as one(s), the same, the kind, the sort,, and some indefinite pronouns like all, both, some, any, enough, several, none, many, much, (a) few, the other, others, another, either, neither, etc., verbal substitutes such as do or do so, and clausal substitutes such as so, not.
e.g. He doesn‘t like this book. Show him a more interesting one. (one=book) Can you get me some nails? I need some. (some=some nails)
A: We all hate hypocrisy. B: Yes, everybody does. (does=hates hypocrisy) He said he would tell me the news, but he didn‘t do so. (do so=tell me the news) A: Do you think he‘ll come tomorrow?
B: Yes, I think so. (so=that he‘ll come tomorrow) No, I think not. (not= that he‘ll not come tomorrow)
2) Omitting words: Like substitution, ellipsis is also a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual cohesion.
e.g. A: Which do you prefer, the red or the green scarf? B: I‘d like the red. (Here, the word ―scarf‖ is omitted.)
I‘d like the red one. (Here, ―one‖ is used to replace ―scarf‖ to avoid repetition.)
《综合教程》（修订版）第三册
1． Conjunctions （连词）
A conjunction is a word which links two clauses, groups, or words. There are two kinds of conjunction: coordinating conjunctions（并列连词） and subordinating conjunctions（从属连词）. The coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, nor, or, then, yet. Some of the most frequent subordinating conjunctions are:
although, despite, though, when, as, if, unless, whenever, because, in spite of, whereas, while. For example:
Her son lives at home and has a steady job. (coordinating conjunction) Visit your local dealer or phone for a brochure. (coordinating conjunction)
He had cancer although it was detected at an early stage. (subordinating conjunction) If he had had a gun, he would have killed the man. (subordinating conjunction)
I. Coordination （并列（关系））
A way of joining clauses, or clause elements with coordinators（并列连词） such as and, or, for, so and but
e.g. Jane is a good teacher, and her students really like her.
Correlatives(关联词): either … or …, both … and …, neither … nor …， not only/ not merely…but (also)…, …as well as… e.g. Either Sylvia or her sister will stay with us.
Which of the following sentences is CORRECT? B A. Keeping to the high roads, cycling as fast as he could, as well as not to stop for rest allowed
him to make the trip in record time.
B. Continue spending like this and you‘ll be bankrupt in a year. C. Either you must stay home or go with us.
D. The sentence is difficult to understand not because of the technical vocabulary but because the
syntax is faulty.
II. Subordination(从属(关系))： (1) Nominal Clauses （名词从句）
There are five main types of nominal clauses: that-clauses, interrogative sub-clauses, nominal relative clauses, nominal to-infinitive clauses and nominal -ing clauses. Nominal clauses function like noun phrases. They can occur as subject（主语）, object（宾语）, complement（补语）, apposition（同位语）, and prepositional complement. For example:
The hope is [that we will succeed]. (complement) The hope [that we will succeed] is unrealistic. (apposition) [What you do] does not concern me. (subject) I didn‘t ask [where you live]. (object)
I had prepared myself very carefully for [what I must say]. (prepositional complement) [To send him money now] would be [to put the cart before the horse]. (subject complement) Exercises:
The question whether he will come or not is not settled. (什么从句?) Whether he will come or not is a question. (什么从句?)
-Which of the italicized parts functions as a subject? A．Do you know if he ever went there at all? B．You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.
C．The proposal that we should import more equipment is to be discussed at the meeting.
D．It occurred to me that I would travel Europe. (2) If-clauses （If (引导的条件状语)从句）
Note: If-clauses in front position are more emphatic (加强语气或强调作用). If-clauses in front position get a comma. For example 1. Take a deep breath and you will feel relaxed. = If you take a deep breath, you will feel relaxed. 2. Had I worked harder, I would have passed the exam. = If I had worked harder, I would have passed the exam. 3. Drive more carefully, or you‘ll cause an accident. = If you don‘t drive more carefully, you‘ll cause an accident.
4. Should the flight be delayed, passengers will be informed immediately.
= If the flight should be delayed, passengers will be informed immediately. 5. Had I known the address, I would have called into the office. = If I had known the address, I would have called into the office. 比如：Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT/ CORRECT?
(3)Adverbial Clauses of Cause（原因状语从句）
This type of clause explains the reasons for what happens in the main clauses.
Conjunctions, like because, as, since, now (that), in that, are often used in the adverbial clauses of cause.
★ Because is used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence. Therefore, the
because-clause usually comes at the end.
★ As and since are used when the reason is already well-known, or is less important than the rest
of the sentence. They can also mean ―in view of the fact that‖. As- and Since- clauses often begin the sentence.
★ Now that has a meaning very close to as and since.
注意：for是并列连语，因此接表示间接原因的并列分句，而不是引导表原因的状语从句。for所说的理由是一种补充，句子一般放在句尾。
Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT? A. Since we do not have to work today, we should go to Laguna Beach. B. Now that the sun has set, the temperature should begin dropping.
C. Because he was tired, he scored poorly on the exam, this is a fact which will cause him to
not be admitted into the university.
D. Learning how to write is important since most professional jobs require writing skills.
so that (“为了……”， “以便……”; “因此/所以……”) introduces an adverbial clause of
purpose（目的状语从句）, which usually contains a modal verb. For example:
The teacher must speak clearly so that his students can understand well. She locked the door so that she wouldn‘t be disturbed.
John has bought a bicycle so that he may save money on fares. He wore glasses and a false beard so that nobody would recognize him. Please arrive early so that we can start the meeting on time.
引导目的状语从句的其它连词还有 in order that, that, lest, for fear (that)等。
Adverbial Clauses of Concession （让步状语从句）
Adverbial clauses of concession express a contrast of meaning or implication of ‗unexpectedness‘ in relation with the main clauses. They are often introduced by concessive conjunctions such as although, though or prepositions such as despite. For example:
Although the car was badly damaged, none of the passengers was hurt. We enjoyed our holiday despite the fact that it rained sometimes. However difficult the situation is, we shall stick to it.
He passed the exam although he had been prevented by illness from studying. No matter whether he was here or not, I shouldn‘t have time to see him. Rich as he is / Although he is rich, Mr. Johnson is by no means a happy man. Despite / Although he is ill, he works hard.
Though everything around him was blown to pieces, the minister escaped without a scratch.
Which of the following contains an adverbial clause of concession? A．Do in Rome as the Romans do.
B. You may call this number in case I am not at home. C. Hard as he worked, he failed.
D. Seeing that it‘s raining, you had better stay indoors.
比较状语从句
the “as … as” structure
If you want to say that a thing or person has much of a quality as something or someone else, you can use a structure based on the word ―as‖ in front of an adjective / adverb. Usually this adjective / adverb is then followed by a phrase or clause which also begins with ―as‖. For example:
You‘re just as bad as your sister.
Conversation was nearly as slow as I feared it would be. The village gardens are as good as they were ten years ago. not as / so … as
The negative form of ―as … as‖ is ―not as … as‖ or ―not so … as‖. But so may not be used (1) after the contracted form such as isn’t, don’t, (2) when there are other lexical items in between the negative word and as…as construction. However, when adverbs with negative meanings, such as not nearly, not quite, are used directly before the comparative construction, so is usually acceptable. For example:
John isn‘t as tall as his father. John is not as / so tall as his father. Michael does not swim as well as Paul.
Michael does not swim nearly as / so well as Paul.
Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?
A. This is nearly as complicated as it sounds.
B. The requirements for a chemistry degree are not as strict as a medical degree.
C. Without this rearing our children would be ten times as hard as it is. D. I‘m not so good a cook as she is.
Verbless Clauses （无动词分句）
A verbless clause means clause-like construction in which a verb element is implied but not present. Such clauses are usually adverbial, and the omitted verb is a form of be.
e.g. John believes the prisoner innocent.
In this sentence the italicized sequence is a verbless clause, which we assume is a reduced version of the to-infinitive clause:
John believes the prisoner to be innocent.
The following sentences contain further examples of verbless clauses (italicized):
He considered the girl a good student. Whenever in trouble, Bill rang his girl-friend. He married her when a student at Harvard.
更多例句：
1. When in doubt, tell the truth. It will confound your enemies and astound your friends.
（=When you are in doubt）
2. When heated, metal expands. （=When it is heated） 3. If true, it will cause us a lot of trouble. （=If it is true）
4. Whenever possible, they should be typed. （=Whenever it is possible）
关于Appositive（同位语）的考查：
An appositive is a word or group of words that identifies or renames another word in a sentence. It offers concise ways of describing or defining a person, place, or thing. An appositive most often appears directly after the noun it identifies or renames.
For example:
the bald eagle, the symbol of America Steve Race, the musician and broadcaster my husband George
All the following sentences have an appositive EXCEPT . A. When travelling by air, we all shall remember Orville Wright, the first man to fly. B. Yesterday I met Tom, a friend of my brothers'. C. You must take care of yourself．
D. We Chinese people are brave and hardworking.
2. Tense (时态)
Tense is a grammatical category that locates a situation in time, that indicates when the situation takes place.
Tense Affirmative（肯定句） / Negative（否定句） / Question（疑问句） Use Simple Present 一般现在时 A: He speaks. N: He does not speak. Q: Does he speak? -Action in the present taking place once, never or several times -Actions taking place one after another -Action set by a timetable or schedule Present Progressive A: He is speaking. 现在进行时 N: He is not speaking. Q: Is he speaking? -Action taking place in the moment of speaking -Action taking place only for a limited period of time -Action arranged for the future Simple Past 一般过去时 A: He spoke. N: He did not speak. Q: Did he speak? Action in the past taking place once, never or several times Actions taking place one after another Action taking place in the middle of another action Past Progressive 过去进行时 A: He was speaking. N: He was not speaking. Q: Was he speaking? Action going on at a certain time in the past Actions taking place at the same time Action in the past that is interrupted by another action Present Perfect Simple 现在完成时 A: He has spoken. N: He has not spoken. Q: Has he spoken? Putting emphasis on the result Action that is still going on Action that stopped recently Finished action that has an influence on the present Action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking Present Perfect Progressive 现在完成进行时 A: He has been speaking. N: He has not been speaking. Q: Has he been speaking? Putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the result) Action that recently stopped or is still going on Finished action that influenced the present Past Perfect Simple A: He had spoken. 过去完成时 N: He had not spoken. Q: Had he spoken? Action taking place before a certain time in the past Sometimes interchangeable with past perfect progressive Putting emphasis only on the fact (not the duration) Past Perfect Progressive 过去完成进行时 A: He had been speaking. N: He had not been speaking. Q: Had he been speaking? Action taking place before a certain time in the past Sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple Putting emphasis on the duration or course of an action Future Simple 一般将来时 A: He will speak. N: He will not speak. Q: Will he speak? Action in the future that cannot be influenced Spontaneous decision Assumption with regard to the future Future Simple (going to) 一般将要时 Future Progressive 将来进行时 A: He is going to speak. N: He is not going to speak. Q: Is he going to speak? A: He will be speaking. N: He will not be speaking. Q: Will he be speaking? Decision made for the future Conclusion with regard to the future Action that is going on at a certain time in the future Action that is sure to happen in the near future Future Perfect Simple A: He will have spoken. N: He will not have spoken. Action that will be finished at a certain time in the future 将来完成时 Future Perfect Progressive 将来完成进行时 Q: Will he have spoken? A: He will have been speaking. N: He will not have been speaking. Q: Will he have been speaking? Action taking place before a certain time in the future Putting emphasis on the course of an action
Present perfect (现在完成时)
The present perfect simple tense an action that is still going on or that has stopped recently, but still has an influence on the present. Use of present perfect
putting emphasis on the result Example: She has written five letters.
the action that is still going on Example: School has not started yet.
the action that has stopped recently Example: She has cooked dinner.
the finished action that has an influence on the present Example: I have lost my key.
the action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking
Example: I have never been to Australia.
Present Perfect Progressive （现在完成进行时）
The present perfect progressive expresses an action that has recently stopped or is still going on. It puts emphasis on the duration or course of the action. Use of present perfect progressive
putting emphasis on the duration or course of an action (not the result) Example: She has been writing for two hours.
the action that has recently stopped or is still going on Example: I have been living here since 2001.
the finished action that has an influence on the present Example: I have been working all afternoon.
The present perfect progressive focuses on the course of the activity or event which may or may not be finished. The present perfect focuses on the result of the activity or event, or just
the fact that something has been achieved.
Past Perfect （过去完成时） vs. Past Perfect Progressive （过去完成进行时） Past perfect
We use the past perfect to talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in the past.
Example: Before her sixth birthday, Jane had never been to the zoo. Past perfect progressive
We use the past perfect progressive when we talk about a situation or activity that happened over a period up to a particular past time, or until shortly before it. Use
Tense in Conditional Sentences 条件状语从句中的时态
Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the condition and the consequence. The condition is the subordinate clause, and the consequence is the main clause. However, the properties of the entire sentence are primarily determined by the properties of the condition (its tense and degree of factualness). e.g. If it rains [condition], (then) the picnic will be cancelled [consequence].
the action taking place before a certain time in the past sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple putting emphasis on the course or duration of an action
English conditional sentences can be divided into the two broad classes of real / factual / predictive and unreal/hypothetical/counterfactual), depending on the form of the verb in the condition.
The tense in the condition (mostly if-clause): Present / future Real真实条件句 Simple present If he says Unreal非真实条件句 Simple past / past progressive If he said past Simple past If he said Past perfect If he had said
The tense in the consequence / main clause Present / future real真实条件句 Simple future / present He will go …, he goes … past Simple past He went … unreal真实条件句 Modal + Infinitive would, might, should, could Modal + Perfect Infinitive would have, might have, should have, could have
e.g. If he is late again, I will fire him. (the situation is real)
If the weather was nice, she often walked to work. (the situation is real because it happened.)
If it wasn‘t raining, we would go for a walk. (But it is raining now.) If he had been late again, I would have fired him. (But he wasn‘t late.)
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms.
1. Be careful about the time. If you ___________(spend) too long on the first question you
__________ (not have) enough time to do the others properly. spend, will not have 2. If I __________ (be) you, I _________ (go) to night school. were, would go 3. If he ________(say) that to me, I ______(run) away. said, would run
4. If you_____ (call) me, I ______(come). had called, would have come
3. Modal Auxiliaries （情态动词）
Modal auxiliaries are special auxiliary verbs that express the degree of certainty of the action in the sentence, or the attitude or opinion of the writer concerning the action. Some common modal auxiliaries are must, can, will, and should. For example
1. Should ministers decide to instigate an inquiry, we would welcome it. (Should ministers
decide = If ministers should decide)
2. Who would ever believe that actress was seventy? She doesn‘t look a day over thirty. 3. No bills shall be stuck on these hoardings. By order. (When shall is used with the third person,
it suggests strong determination.)
4. A: I‘m broke at the moment, so I can‘t afford to come to the cinema with you.
B: Well, you would spend all your money at the casino.
(Stressed would is used to criticize. It means ―It is typical of you …‖)
Which of the following sentences expresses PROBABILITY? B A. I will do as I like; nothing and nobody is going to stop me.
B. If someone you lie to finds out the truth, will he thank you for caring? C. Mary is in hospital again. Well, she would not listen to the doctor. D. I will call you later.
4. Adverbs （副词）
Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. There are several types of adverbs: Time adverbs that connect the past to the present, such as recently, lately, for weeks, are often used with the present perfect. Adverbs that refer to the definite past are used with the past tense.
Adverbs of manner（方式副词） This type of adverb shows how something is done, such as a man ―driving carefully‖ or a song being ―passionately sung.‖
Adverbs of degree（程度副词） This type of adverb tells the reader ―how much‖ of something is done or experience, as in ―We eat out a lot‖ or ―The beer was extremely cold.‖
Adverbs of time（时间副词） This type of adverb provides information on the timing and occurrence of an event, such as when you promise to ―send the reports in an hour‖ or ―attend a function next week.‖
Adverbs of frequency（频度副词） This type of adverb shows how often something happens, as in ―I usually take the bus around 7‖ or ―I often lose track of time.‖
Adverbs of comment（评论副词）. This type of adverb provides an opinion on a situation, such as when remarking that, ―Unfortunately, Christmas isn't happening this year.‖
5. Non-finite verbs（非限定动词）/ Non-predicate verbs(非谓语动词)
A non-finite verb is a verb form that is not limited by a subject and, more generally, is not fully inflected by categories that are marked inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and person. As a result, a non-finite verb cannot serve as a predicate and can be used in an independent clause only when combined with an auxiliary verb (e.g., ―He can write‖ but not ―He to write‖). Rather, it can be said to head a non-finite clause. English has three kinds of non-finite verbs: participles（分词）, gerunds（动名词） and infinitives（不定式）. For example:
Annoyed, Lisa ate dinner by herself in the bedroom. (participle)
Gazing at the painting, she recalled the house where she was born. (participle) Leon improved his skills by studying. (gerund) I don't have time to waste. (infinitive)
Non-finite Verb Forms as Object or Complement
A non-finite verb is a verb form that is not limited by a subject and, more generally, is not fully inflected by categories that are marked inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and person. There are three kinds of non-finite verb: participles, gerunds and infinitives.
A non-finite verb can be used as an object, for example:
My evening routine involves jogging slowly around the block. A non-finite verb can also be used as a complement, for example: He has a lot of things to do today. 更多的例句：
They object to being spoken to like that. I felt the house shake with the explosion. He has been caught stealing by the police. We regret to inform you that your application has not been successful. 注：有些词如remember, try, go on, regret, begin, stop, forget, like等后即可接动名词也可接不定式，但词义却不同。
6. Inversion （倒装句）
When we use negative adverbials or only + adverbial at the beginning of a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted. The auxiliary appears before the subject.
When we put an adverbial phrase of direction or place at the beginning of a sentence, we sometimes put an intransitive verb in front of the subject.
e.g. She could rarely have been faced with so severe a challenge. → Rarely could she have been faced with so severe a challenge. More examples:
1. Under no circumstances can customers‘ money be refunded. = Customers‘ money cannot be refunded under any circumstances. 2. A few miles further on lies the enchanting suburb of Balham.
= The enchanting suburb of Balham lies a few miles further on. 3. Nowhere had Susan seen a more beautifully decorated room.
= Susan had not seen a more beautifully decorated room anywhere. 4. On no account should you be absent from your seminars. = You should not be absent from your seminars on any account.
Fronting（前置）& Postponement（后置）
In English, the first element in a declarative sentence （陈述句）is usually the subject, but if we want to emphasize another element, we can put it first instead. We can put the object, the complement, the predicate verb（谓语动词） at the initial position. Fronting is common in parallel structures（平行结构）. For example:
They have promised to finish the work, and [finish it] they will. (predicate verb) [His face] not many admired, while [his character] still fewer could praise. (object) [A professor] he was, but in name only. (complement) Exercises:
1. You will growl, and you must go. (predicate verb) = Growl you will, and go you must.
2. He might have agreed under pressure; he would never willingly. (adjunct) = He might have agreed under pressure; willingly he would never. 3. We have already discussed this question at some length. (object) = This question we have already discussed at some length. 4. His name is Wilson. (complement) = Wilson, his name is.
5. My sister Flora was sitting at her desk in deep concentration. (predicate) = Sitting at her desk in deep concentration was my sister Flora. 6. We plunged into the stifling smoke. (adjunct) = Into the stifling smoke we plunged.
We can postpone the object in SVOO, SVOC, SVOA clause patterns in order to follow the principle of end weight. (S=subject; V=verb; O=object; C=complement; A=adjunct附加语) For example:
They pronounced guilty every one of the accused. (SVOC) Send the parcel to my father not to my mother. (SVOO)
I saw on my way home yesterday a man with a scar across his face trying to escape with a bag he had snatched from a lady. (SVOA) Exercises:
1. He had called the man on whose judgment he now had to rely an idiot. = He had called an idiot the man on whose judgment he now had to rely. 2. The problem of what contribution the public should pay then arose. = The problem then arose of what contribution the public should pay. 3. He gave the sergeant who occupied the trench opposite the parcel. = He gave the parcel to the sergeant who occupied the trench opposite. 4. The story of her phenomenal success in Australia is told. = The story is told of her phenomenal success in Australia.
5. She rapidly spotted the book that I had been desperately searching for all morning right on
my desk. = She rapidly spotted the book right on my desk that I had been desperately searching for all morning.
6. I confessed all my defects to him. = I confessed to him all my defects.
7. it & there be
it
You can use it as the subject of a link verb such as ―be‖. Usually it refers to something that has just been mentioned. You can also use it as the subject of be to say what the time, distance or weather is. You can use it with a link verb and an adjective to describe an experience. After the adjective, you use an ―-ing‖ form or a ―to‖ infinitive. You can use it with a link verb and an adjective to describe the experience of being in a particular place. After the adjective, you use an adjunct of place. You can use it with an adjective or noun group to comment on a whole situation. After the adjective or noun group, you use a ―that‖ clause. You can sometimes use a ―wh‖ clause instead of a ―that‖ clause. ( ―it‖--preparatory subject/ formal subject形式主语) For example:
I like your British accent. I think it‘s quite attractive. (something just mentioned) It‘s seven o‘clock. (time) It was terribly cold. (weather)
It‘s nice hearing your voice again. (an experience) It‘s important to know your own limitations. (an action) It was cozy in the car. (a place)
It is lucky that I am going abroad. (a situation) It‘s funny how people change. (a situation)
It will be surprising if the two countries don‘t reach an agreement.
there …
When you want to say that something exists, or when you want to mention the presence of something, you can use ―there‖ followed by ―be‖ and a noun group. The noun group is usually followed by an adjunct, a wh-clause, or one of the adjectives ―available‖, ―present‖, or ―free‖. For example:
There‘s a lot of traffic on this road tonight. There will be no one to help you.
8．Direct Speech （直接引语） & Indirect Speech（间接引语）
Direct speech gives the exact words in the report, and in writing and print uses quotation marks. A wide range of verbs can be used to indicate the type of utterance or the way in which something is said, such as answer, ask, comment, cry, ejaculate, enquire / inquire, exclaim, groan, growl, moan, murmur, mutter, note, observe, reply, respond, retort, scream, screech, shout, shriek, smile, whine, yell.
e.g. “What do you do on days when it isn‘t going well?” Dr. Brock was asked.
“Not if I can help it,” I replied.
In indirect speech, verbs are generally ―backshifted‖ in tense to align them with the time of reporting, and other changes, such as in pronouns and adverbials of time and place, are made for the same reason.
e.g. A student asked if we found it useful to circulate in literary world. Practice
Change the sentences from direct speech to indirect speech and vice versa (反过来，相反地). 1. ―What do you do on days when it isn‘t going well?‖ Dr. Brock was asked.
Dr. Brock was asked what he did on days when it wasn‘t going well. 2. A student asked if we found it useful to circulate in literary world. A student asked: ―Do you find it useful to circulate in literary world?” 3. ―I know the answer,‖ Jane said. Jane said that she knew the answer.
4. Doris told Robert that he could then watch television. Doris told Robert, ―You can now watch television‖.
9． Prepositions and Adverbs （介词和副词）
Preposition: a word or group of words, such as in, from, to, out of and on behalf of, used before a noun or pronoun to show place, position, time or method
Adverb: a word that adds more information about place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc. to a verb, an adjective, a phrase or another adverb
Remember: Many words are used as prepositions, but they can also be used as adverbs. A preposition never appears alone. It is always followed by an object which will be a noun or pronoun. If the word has a noun or pronoun following it, it is probably a preposition. If it does not have a noun or pronoun following it, it is probably an adverb. For example:
The cat sleeps on the sofa. (prep.) Please sit down and listen. (adv.)
After nursing the whole family when they had flu, she was completely worn out. (?) He pretended to fall in with my plan but secretly he was working against it. (?)
10． Ellipsis（省略）, Substitution（替代） & Reference （照应）
In Cohesion in English, M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion, and conjunction. ellipsis: grammatical omission e.g. --Where are you going? -- To town.
substitution: one item is substituted by another (same structural function) e.g. My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.
You think Joan already knows? I think she does. The scientific study of memory began in the early 1870s when a German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus, came up with the revolutionary idea that memory could be studied experimentally. In doing so …
11． Articles （冠词）
An article (abbreviated ART) is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun.
We use the when we expect the listener or reader to be able to identify the thing or person we are talking about. We use a / an when we don‘t.
We also use the when it is clear from the situation which person or thing we mean.
Add the articles where necessary in the following passage.
A camera is the piece of equipment used for taking photographs. The camera lets in light from an image in front of it and directs the light onto photographic film. The light has effect on chemicals which cover the film and forms the picture on it.
12． Reflexive Pronouns （反身代词）
A reflexive pronoun is a special kind of pronoun that is usually used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject.
I-myself
you (singular)-yourself / (plural)-yourselves he-himself she-herself it-itself we-ourselves they-themselves
e.g. She kept on muttering to herself.
Fill in the blanks with a proper form of -self / -selves if possible.
1. Do I make ____clear? myself 2. You have only ___ to blame. yourself 3. He got out of the swimming pool and dried ________. himself 4. He got up, washed _______, shaved _______ and dressed ________. /, /, / (We don‘t use –self / -selves after concentrate, feel, relax, meet, wash, shave, dress.) 5. If someone attacks you, you need to be able to defend _______. yourself
13． Subjunctive Mood （虚拟语气）
A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or not factual. It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request, demand, or proposal.
These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive mood: ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request, require, suggest, and
wish.
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms.
1. I wish he _____ kinder to me. were
2. But I blame the real culprit even more. If he _________ (admit) his guilt, Peter ____________ (not be) expelled. had admitted, wouldn‘t have been 3. We came in last just because we got lost. If we __________ (not get) lost, we ___________ (come) in somewhere in the middle. We certainly __________ (not be) last.
hadn‘t got, would have come, wouldn‘t have been
4. Be careful about the time. If you _________ (spend) too long on the first question, you __________ (not have) enough time to do the others properly. spend, will not have 5. His requirement is that everyone ___ computer literate. be
14．Punctuation （标点）
The purpose of punctuation is to make clear the meaning of what we write. The full stop marks the end of a statement. The comma is mainly used to group words that belong together and to separate those that do not. It can also be used to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases.
Punctuate the following sentences, using commas or full stops.
1. The butterfly is a marvel it begins as an ugly caterpillar and turns into a work of art. The butterfly is a marvel. It begins as an ugly caterpillar and turns into a work of art. 2. It‘s warm enough here in London a little too warm if anything. It's warm enough here in London. A little too warm, if anything. 3. I was feeling hungry so I made myself a sandwich. I was feeling hungry, so I made myself a sandwich.
4. Both John and I had many errands to do yesterday John had to go to the post office and bookstore I had to go to the drugstore the travel agency and the bank.
Both John and I had many errands to do yesterday. John had to go to the post office and bookstore. I had to go to the drugstore the travel, agency and the bank. 5. The child hid behind his mother‘s skirt for he was afraid of the dog. The child hid behind his mother‘s skirt, for he was afraid of the dog.
例题:
1. 下列哪个句子是错的:
1．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT? A．Twenty miles seems like a long walk to him． B．No one except his supporters agree with him． C． Few students in my class are really lazy．
D． Neither Julia nor I were going to the party． 2．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT? A．How strange feelings they are! B．How dare you speak to me like that! C．What noise they are making! D. What a mess we are in!
3．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?
A．New machinery were introduced in the factory． B． Poultry are very expensive in the city． C．The police are investigating the murder case．
D．The militia were called out to rescue flood victims． 4．Which of the following is INCORRECT?
A．Many a boy and many a girl have seen the film before. B．He said he would go to Shanghai on business the next day. C．I forgot to bring your umbrella with me. D．His father has left his homeland for fifty years. 5．Which of the following is INCORRECT? A．We know what each other thinks. B．They know one another's weak points. C．None of the books is interesting: D．He didn't stay there so long as she.
2. 关于限定词:
1．Which of the following determiners(限定词)can be placed before both singular count nouns and plural count nouns?
A．many a B．few C．the next D．such
3. 关于反身代词和同位语:
1．Which of the following reflexive pronouns(反身代词)is used as an appositive(同位语)? A，He promised himself rapid progress． B．The manager herself will interview Mary． C．I have nothing to say for myself．
D．They quarreled themselves red in the face．
4. 关于句子的意思：
1．Which of the following sentences expresses WILLINGNESS? A．By now she will be eating dinner． B．I shall never do that again． C．You shall get a promotion．
D．My brother will help you with the luggage． 2．What does \"You cannot give him too much money\" mean? A．You shouldn't give him too much money. B．The more money you give him, the better. C．You can't give him a lot of money. D．You ought to give him less money.
3．\"I was going to see the film, but he reminded me of seeing it before.\" The sentence means that A．he reminded me to see the film, and I would go to see it.
B．I was about to see the film, but he reminded me that I had seen it before. C．I wouldn't remember to see the film if he didn't remind me. D．I forget that I have seen the film before if he didn't remind me. 4．\"He's no more able to read Japanese than I am.\" The sentence means that A．neither he nor I am able to read Japanese. B．I can read Japanese but he can't. C．my Japanese is better than him. D．both he and I are able to read Japanese.
5．In \"What do you think he likes?\" what is __ of the sentence． A．the subject B．the adverbial
C．the object D．the complement
6. \"He is the last person to be fit for the job.\" has all the following possible meanings EXCEPT A．He is the one that isn't fit for the job. B．He is the one that is not suitable for the job. C．He is the fittest person for the job. D．He might be the person that is least wanted.
5. 关于主语从句:
1．Which of the italicized parts functions as a subject? A．We never doubt that her brother is honest． B．The problem is not who will go but who will stay．
C．It is clear that the crime was done deliberately． D．You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.
6. 关于宾语从句:
1．Which of the italicized parts functions as an object? A．He like the idea of my speaking at the meeting． B．It is no use your pretending not to know the matter． C．Her falling into the river was the climax of the whole trip．
D．My parents strongly object to my going out alone at night．
7. 关于同位语：
1．All the following sentences have an appositive EXCEPT A．Only one problem still remains---the food． B．She bought herself a pair of new shoes． C．My friends all understand and support me．
D．She liked her current job，teaching English．
8. 关于间接引语：
1．Which of the following best explains the meaning of ―Shall we buy the tickets first‖? A．He said that we were going to buy the tickets first． B．He requested that we buy the tickets first． C．He suggested that we buy the tickets first．
D．He advised us to buy the tickets first．
9. 关于原因状语从句：
1．Which of the following contains an adverbial clause of cause? A．I got a job as soon as I left university． B．As there was no answer, I wrote again． C．You must do the exercises as I show you．
D．Wealthy as he is，Mark is not a happy man．
10. 关于介词短语：
1．Which of the following prepositional phrases can function as an adverbial? A．Despite the rain，everyone enjoyed the trip． B．The man with a beard is talking to the manage.
C．Every precaution was taken against the failure of the plan． D．Are you sure of Simon's disappearance?
2．Which of the following prepositional phrases is an adverbial of concession? A．They used the box for keeping treasures． B．I stepped aside for her to get in first．
C．For all that he seems to dislike me，I still like him． D．The parents bought a birthday cake for their son．
2010年 第51题
Which of the following italicized phrases indicates CAUSE? A. Why don‘t you do it for the sake of your friends? B. I wish I could write as well as you. C. For all his efforts, he didn‘t get an A. D. Her eyes were red from excessive reading. 答案：D
A中的for the sake of 表目的；C中的for all his efforts―尽管他付出很多努力‖表让步，只有D表原因。
2010年 第61题
In the sentence ―It‘s no use waiting for her.”, the italicized phrase is . A. the object B. an adverbial C. a complement D. the subject 答案： D
2010年 第62题
Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT? A. All his lectures are very interesting. B. Half their savings were gone.
C. Many his friends came to the party. D. Both his sisters are nurses. 答案：C
all, half, many, both都可作不定代词，后接of+名词，many后面的of不可以省略，其余三个都可以。
2010年 第63题
Which of the following sentences has an object complement? A. The directors appointed John manager. B. I gave Mary a Christmas present. C. You have done Peter a favour. D. She is teaching children English. 答案：A
英语中动词后接两个宾语有两种可能：1.双宾语(指人的为间接宾语，指物的为直接宾语) 2.复合宾语(两者为宾语和宾语补足语，构成逻辑上的主谓关系）。此题BCD为双宾语，A中的宾语为复合宾语）
2011年 第52题
Which of the following sentences is a COMMAND? A. What noise you are making! B. Never do that again! C. Have a good time! D. Beg your pardon. 答案：B
祈使句可用于表达命令、请求、劝告、警告、禁止等。ACD分别表示抱怨、祝愿、请求，只有B表示命令。
2011年 第53题
Which of the following italicized phrases indicates purpose? A. She said it for fun, but others took her seriously. B. For all its effort, the team didn‘t win the match. C. Linda has worked for the firm for 20 years. D. He set out for Beijing yesterday. 答案：A
本题考查for的含义。B是表示让步的状语―尽管出力‖，C表示时间，D表示方向。只有A表示目的。
2011年 第55题
In phrases like freezing cold, burning hot, or soaking wet, the –ING participle is used A. for concession. B. for emphasis. C. as a command. D. as a condition. 答案：B
2011年 第58题
Which of the following italicized parts is used as an object? A. What do you think has happened for her? B. Who do you think the visiting professor is? C. How much do you think he earns every month? D. How quickly would you say he would come?
答案：C
本题考查特殊疑问词的句法功能。A中的作主语，B中的作表语，D中的状语。所有的do you think 都是插入成分，去除后理解结构会很清晰。
2011年 第60题
Which of the following italicized parts is a subject clause? A. It is sheer luck that the miners are still alive after ten days. B. He has to face the fact that there will be no pay rise this year. C. She said that she had seen the man earlier that morning. D. We are quite certain that we will get there in time. 答案： A
本题考查从句的语法功能。B为fact的同位语从句；C为宾语从句；D为表语从句。
2011年 第62题
In the sentence ―The manager interviewed Jim himself in the morning.‖, the italicized word is used to modify . A. the object B. the verb C. the subject D. the prepositional phrase 答案：C
反身代词可以做同位语，加强被修饰语的语气，放在被修饰名词后或句末。
2011年 第题
The sentence that expresses OFFER is . A. I‘ll get some drinks. What‘ll you have? B. Does she need to book a ticket now? C. May I know your name?
D. Can you return the book next week? 答案： A 本题考查句子的语用功能。此题只有A表达提供帮助；其它都表疑问。
2011年 第65题
Which of the following italicized phrases indicates a subject-predicated relation(主谓关系)?
E. Mr. Smith’s passport has been issued.
F. John’s travel details have not been finalized. G. The visitor’s arrival was reported in the news. H. The new bookstore sells children’s stories. 答案：C
本题考查名词s-属格的意义。A和B中‘s表示所有关系，即相当于Mr. Smith has a passport和John has travel details；C表示主谓关系，相当于The visitor arrived；D表示事物的类别，相当于stories for children。
2011年 第69题 (词汇)
John is up to his eyes in work at the moment. The underlined part means . A. very excited B. very busy C. very tired D. very efficient
答案：B (Up to one‘s eyes in work 意为―工作特忙‖，近义表达还有：up to one‘s ears in work; up to one‘s neck in work.)
2011年 第70题 (词汇)
Victoria bumped into her brother quite by chance in the supermarket. The underlined word means .
A. risk B. opportunity C. luck D. possibility 答案：C
2011年 第71题（词汇）
―Look at those pretty girls‘ skirts‖ is , because it is not clear whether the girls or the skirts are ―pretty‖.
A. ambiguous B. hidden C. indirect D. indistinct 答案：A (ambiguous可表示―引起歧义的‖，indistinct ―不清晰的‖)
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